American history from the late 19th century into the early 20th century was marked by the rapid expansion of industry, massive waves of immigration, and a shift in the national workforce. In the period following the Civil War—known as Reconstruction—and the subsequent Gilded Age, workers faced numerous challenges, including long hours, low wages, and hazardous conditions. Against this backdrop, labor unions emerged as a vehicle for change. Two of the most influential labor organizations of that era were the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor (AFL). Their paths often intersected as they sought to secure better working conditions and fair compensation for the growing industrial workforce. In this article, we will explore how each organization rose to prominence, shaped the labor movement, and left a lasting impact on American society.
Background: The Post-Civil War Era
When the Civil War ended in 1865, the United States faced the challenging task of rebuilding the fractured nation. Reconstruction initially focused on the Southern states, aiming to restore the Union, protect newly freed African Americans, and repair wartime destruction. However, massive industrial growth was also taking off in the North, fueled by advancements in technology and transportation. Railroads crisscrossed the nation, and factories churned out steel, textiles, and a variety of consumer goods at unprecedented rates. This economic surge led to enormous profits for some, especially industrialists like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller, but it also created significant hardships for workers.
Newly arrived immigrants—many from Ireland, Germany, and later Southern and Eastern Europe—flocked to cities in search of opportunities. They joined Americans migrating from rural to urban areas, all hoping to share in the promise of industrial prosperity. Yet the reality often involved low wages, unsafe working conditions, and minimal legal protections. With federal policies largely favoring industry over labor, the environment was ripe for collective organizations to take shape. It was within this climate that labor unions began to form, providing a united voice to those who had little influence on their own.
Emergence of Labor Unions
Labor unions had existed in some form since colonial times, but it wasn’t until the mid-19th century that they began to organize on a larger scale. Early unions typically focused on specific crafts, such as shoemakers or printers, and fought to protect wages and job security in their respective fields. However, as industries expanded, new forms of labor organization became necessary to address broader issues—like child labor, workplace safety, and an overall imbalance of power between workers and large corporations.
During the post-Civil War era, the rise of big business and the lack of government regulation gave employers near-total control over employment terms. Many workers toiled for 10 to 12 hours a day, six days a week, with little job security or recourse if they were injured on the job. Unions responded by advocating for shorter workdays, better wages, and the right to organize without fear of retaliation. Their membership grew as workers realized they could achieve greater bargaining power collectively. From this climate of industrializing America emerged two key organizations: the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor. While both championed the rights of workers, they approached their goals and organized their members quite differently.
Knights of Labor: Foundation and Early Goals
The Knights of Labor, officially known as the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor, was founded in 1869 by a group of Philadelphia garment workers led by Uriah Smith Stephens. Initially, the organization operated as a secret society, reflecting the fear that open union activities might lead to job loss or even violent reprisals. Their mission was broad and ambitious: the Knights aimed to unite all “producers”—which included anyone who worked for a living, whether skilled or unskilled, men or women, white or Black—under a single banner.
The Knights of Labor stood out for their inclusivity. They welcomed workers who were often excluded from craft unions, such as women and Black workers. By the late 1870s, under the leadership of Terence V. Powderly, the Knights moved toward more public activism. Powderly advocated for cooperative enterprises, where workers would own and manage businesses collectively, sharing profits and decision-making. The Knights also pushed for an eight-hour workday, the abolition of child labor, and equal pay for equal work. Their overarching goal was not just to improve conditions in specific industries, but to reshape the entire economy along more egalitarian lines.
Knights of Labor: Key Successes and Challenges
One of the Knights’ most significant successes came in the early-to-mid 1880s, as their membership exploded from around 100,000 to more than 700,000. This surge was driven in part by successful strikes, including one against the Wabash Railroad, which inspired more workers to see the benefits of collective action. The Knights’ commitment to unified efforts across different industries seemed poised to transform the American labor landscape.
However, the organization’s rapid growth also brought problems. Managing the needs of a diverse membership—across varying trades, backgrounds, and local concerns—proved incredibly difficult. The Knights were also divided internally on strategies. Some members preferred strikes and boycotts to force concessions from employers, while others, like Powderly, were more cautious about confrontational tactics. High-profile events such as the Haymarket Affair in 1886 further damaged the Knights’ reputation. Although they were not directly responsible for the violence in Chicago, the public began to associate radical labor actions with the Knights. Employers also seized on this crisis to paint the organization as dangerous, contributing to a steady decline in membership. By the mid-1890s, the Knights of Labor had largely fallen out of prominence, overshadowed by a new union model championed by the American Federation of Labor.
AFL: Foundation and Philosophical Differences
While the Knights of Labor aimed to unify all workers, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) took a different, more targeted approach. Formed in 1886 under the leadership of Samuel Gompers, the AFL was a federation of autonomous craft unions. Rather than welcoming every kind of worker, the AFL focused on skilled laborers—carpenters, typographers, cigar makers, and so on. This narrower focus allowed the AFL to concentrate on wage increases, shorter working hours, and better working conditions for its members.
Gompers believed in “pure and simple unionism,” favoring pragmatic economic gains over broader social reforms. He argued that by concentrating on skilled workers, the AFL could wield greater leverage in negotiations with employers. The logic was that businesses would be more reluctant to lose skilled labor—who were harder to replace—thus giving these workers a stronger bargaining position. This strategy proved effective in many cases, and the AFL quickly grew to become one of the most powerful labor organizations of the Gilded Age.
AFL: Impact and Major Campaigns
Under Gompers’s leadership, the AFL made tangible gains for its members. Negotiating directly with employers, they secured higher wages and shorter work hours, as well as improved safety measures in certain industries. By focusing on craft-based unions, the AFL created strong, cohesive groups that could strike or organize boycotts more effectively when employers refused to meet demands.
The AFL was also well-known for supporting legislation aimed at protecting skilled laborers, including pushing for the eight-hour workday and laws that would rein in child labor. Although they had success in certain regions, their influence did not always extend to the broader workforce. Critics argued that by prioritizing skilled workers—who were often white and male—the AFL excluded immigrants, African Americans, and women, thereby limiting its potential to represent the entire American working class. Despite these criticisms, the AFL’s model of focusing on immediate economic concerns proved more resilient than the Knights’ grander, more inclusive vision. By the turn of the century, the AFL had solidified itself as a dominant force in the labor movement.
Knights of Labor vs. AFL: Key Contrasts
The Knights of Labor and the AFL represented two contrasting visions of what a labor union should be. The Knights aimed for a broad coalition that transcended specific trades or skill levels. They saw themselves as part of a larger struggle for social and economic reform—an almost utopian reimagining of American industry in which workers would gain control over production.
In contrast, the AFL rooted its focus in wage negotiations, hours, and working conditions primarily for skilled laborers. This narrower scope allowed for more targeted campaigns that often yielded quicker results for members. The AFL’s approach was pragmatic: prioritize the immediate, tangible needs of workers in key industries, and use that leverage to extract concessions from employers. While the Knights of Labor favored inclusivity and broad social change, the AFL centered on economic self-interest for a specific group of workers. This philosophical difference would remain a defining feature of labor politics into the 20th century.
Role of Immigration and Diversity
Immigration during the Gilded Age played a significant role in shaping the American labor movement. Millions of newcomers settled in cities like New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia, filling the factories, mills, and railroads that fueled America’s economic expansion. While the Knights of Labor attempted to embrace this diversity by opening membership to immigrants and historically marginalized groups, the AFL generally took a more cautious stance. Some AFL-affiliated unions supported immigration restrictions, fearing that an influx of unskilled labor would drive down wages and diminish the bargaining power of skilled workers.
Racial and ethnic tensions further complicated union efforts. Many white workers worried that jobs would go to immigrants, leading to resentment and divisions that employers often exploited to weaken labor organizing. The Knights of Labor’s inclusive policies were groundbreaking for the time, but they were not entirely free of discrimination. Some local chapters were more welcoming than others, reflecting the broader societal prejudices of the era. Overall, immigration brought a surge in labor supply, and unions like the Knights and the AFL had to adapt their strategies to remain relevant and effective advocates for their members.
The Influence of Industrialization
Industrialization was the driving force behind the Gilded Age economy. Factories required vast numbers of workers to operate heavy machinery, assemble products, and manage transportation logistics. This rapidly changing work environment was often dangerous—fire hazards, lack of safety equipment, and poorly ventilated spaces were common. Workplace accidents were frequent, and compensation for injured workers was minimal, if it existed at all.
In such conditions, labor unions saw an opportunity to push for reforms that would protect workers. The Knights of Labor called for employer responsibility, believing that the financial risks of workplace injuries should not fall on individual laborers. The AFL also demanded safer conditions, albeit mainly for skilled workers, who were essential to business operations. While neither union singlehandedly transformed industrial safety standards, their collective pressure contributed to gradual improvements. Over time, both unions helped advance a national conversation about workplace regulations, spurring the creation of early labor laws that would evolve well into the 20th century.
Child Labor and Workplace Reforms
During the Gilded Age, child labor was tragically common. Children as young as eight or nine years old worked long hours in factories, coal mines, and textile mills to supplement their families’ incomes. Many Americans were unaware or indifferent to these conditions until reformers and labor unions drew attention to them.
The Knights of Labor were among the most vocal opponents of child labor, advocating for mandatory education laws and age restrictions for working minors. They reasoned that children should be in school, preparing for a better future rather than risking their health in dangerous factories. The AFL also opposed child labor in principle, although its focus remained primarily on improving conditions for its dues-paying members—who were typically older, skilled workers. Still, both organizations contributed to a growing public awareness that children should be protected, not exploited. Reform campaigns, supported in part by union activism, eventually led to state-level legislation curbing child labor. Though meaningful federal regulations on child labor did not come until decades later, these initial efforts laid an essential foundation for broader social reforms.
Government Response and Public Opinion
In the late 19th century, the federal government often adopted a laissez-faire approach to economic matters, favoring industrial leaders who claimed that regulations would stifle growth. Courts frequently issued injunctions against striking unions, interpreting work stoppages as illegal disruptions of business. Police and private security forces were sometimes enlisted to break strikes, leading to violent clashes.
Public opinion on labor unions was mixed. While many Americans sympathized with workers’ desire for fair wages and safer conditions, headlines about riots, violent strikes, and property destruction fueled skepticism. Events like the Haymarket Affair of 1886, which began as a peaceful rally but ended in a deadly explosion and gunfire, heightened mistrust of labor groups. The Knights of Labor, unfairly linked to that incident, saw a swift decline in both membership and public support. The AFL, meanwhile, weathered these storms more effectively, thanks in part to its narrower focus and structured approach to negotiations. Gradually, the union movement forced lawmakers to acknowledge that unchecked industrial practices harmed average Americans. Some states began passing limited labor laws, such as maximum work-hour regulations, though these were not always strongly enforced.
Long-Term Effects on the Labor Movement
The successes and failures of the Knights of Labor and the AFL set the stage for how labor unions would develop in the 20th century. The Knights demonstrated the power of inclusive organization and utopian ideals—an attempt to unite all workers under one umbrella. Though they ultimately declined in influence, they proved that a broad-based union could attract a large following and make significant strides in improving conditions.
The AFL’s legacy is found in its persistence and adaptability. Samuel Gompers’s “pure and simple unionism” dominated labor strategy for decades, emphasizing negotiations over confrontation whenever possible. By focusing on skilled labor, the AFL avoided some of the pitfalls that beset the Knights. Even as the labor movement evolved—witnessing the rise of industrial unions in the 1930s under the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)—the AFL’s emphasis on practical goals like fair wages and manageable hours remained central. Eventually, the AFL merged with the CIO in 1955, illustrating how different union philosophies could combine to form a more unified national movement.
Conclusion
In the grand sweep of American history, the Reconstruction and Gilded Age periods were times of both immense opportunity and stark inequality. During this transformative era, the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor emerged as pivotal agents of change. The Knights, with their inclusive philosophy, tried to rally all workers—irrespective of skill, race, or gender—under one banner, advocating not just for better conditions but for a more just economic system. The AFL, by contrast, honed in on skilled workers, leveraging their specialized talents to win concrete gains in wages and working conditions.
Both organizations struggled against formidable forces: powerful industrialists, skeptical lawmakers, and a public torn between supporting labor rights and fearing social upheaval. While the Knights of Labor eventually faded, their early successes and broad vision left a lasting imprint on American labor activism. The AFL’s pragmatic approach enabled it to endure and shape national labor policies well into the 20th century. Taken together, their stories underscore how labor unions can influence social and economic reforms. They remind us that workers’ collective efforts have the power to shape fairer and safer workplaces—a vital lesson that resonates to this day.
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What were the Knights of Labor and the AFL, and how did they differ?
The Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor (AFL) were two prominent labor unions during the Gilded Age. The Knights of Labor was established in 1869 and aimed to represent all workers, regardless of trade, skill level, or race. They were ambitious, advocating for broad social reforms including an eight-hour workday, equal pay for equal work, and the abolition of child labor. The Knights sought to create one large united workforce to leverage significant change through mass action.
On the other hand, the AFL, founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, took a more pragmatic approach. It was a federation of trade unions dedicated to representing skilled workers. The AFL focused on specific labor issues such as wages, hours, and working conditions, and they believed in using collective bargaining and strikes within each trade to achieve their goals. While the Knights had a more inclusive but disorganized approach, the AFL honed in on economic outcomes through structured negotiations.
2. Why did the Knights of Labor decline while the AFL gained influence?
A number of factors contributed to the decline of the Knights of Labor. One critical issue was their open membership policy which, while inclusive, led to problematic alliances and weakened their negotiation power. They struggled with internal democracy, and their leadership was often unable to control the actions of all members or coordinate responses effectively. Additionally, their ambitions were seen as too broad and idealistic, lacking the focus needed for practical reform.
The turning point for their decline was the Haymarket Affair of 1886, where a labor protest in Chicago turned violent following an explosive incident that killed both police and demonstrators. Public opinion quickly turned against labor unions, and the Knights, due to their size and visibility, unfairly took much of the blame.
In contrast, the AFL’s emphasis on skilled labor, trade unionism, and clear, attainable objectives allowed them to maintain credibility and negotiating power. They focused their efforts on economic gains for members, avoiding political disputes, which helped them to grow in influence and membership as the 19th century came to a close.
3. What were the major goals of these labor movements and how successful were they in achieving them?
Both the Knights of Labor and the AFL aimed to improve working conditions and wages, but their strategies differed significantly. The Knights of Labor aimed at transformative social reforms—abolishing child labor, instituting an eight-hour workday, and fundamentally changing the economic system. However, they achieved limited success in these broad goals and failed to sustain long-term political reforms due to organizational weaknesses.
The AFL focused on more targeted and achievable aspirations. Their major goals included better wages, fewer hours, and improved working conditions for skilled workers. Through negotiation, strikes, and collective bargaining, they managed to secure better pay and conditions for many of their members. Their success solidified skilled labor’s position and contributed to labor law reforms over time.
4. How did these labor organizations impact the social fabric of the United States during the Gilded Age?
The influence of the Knights of Labor and the AFL extended beyond immediate economic impacts, contributing significantly to the social and political awareness of workers’ rights. The Knights of Labor promoted inclusivity among workers, integrating immigrants, women, and African Americans into their fold, fostering a sense of solidarity among diverse populations even though they couldn’t always maintain it effectively in practice.
Through their public actions and strikes, labor movements brought national attention to the dire working conditions many faced, catalyzing a broader dialogue about industrial capitalism’s impact on American society. The AFL’s success in collective bargaining demonstrated the power of organized labor, setting precedents for future labor relations and influencing labor laws in the 20th century.
5. Did the Knights of Labor or the AFL face significant opposition or challenges, and how did they respond?
Both organizations faced considerable opposition from employers, government entities, and at times, the public. The Knights of Labor, for instance, struggled against employers who resisted labor’s demands and sometimes used force to break up strikes. The Haymarket Affair had a devastating impact on their public image and ability to attract new members.
Similarly, the AFL contended with employer associations that aimed to undermine union efforts through strikebreaking tactics and advocacy for “open shops” where union membership was not required. Despite these obstacles, the AFL managed to remain strong by concentrating on achievable collective bargaining agreements, maintaining public sympathy through measured actions, and promoting the benefits of union membership for skilled workers.
Both organizations had to navigate the complexities of an evolving industrial society, and while facing numerous challenges, they laid important groundwork for future labor rights advancements in the U.S.